What school environment characteristics influence the physical fitness of low-income schoolchildren?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v66.114142Keywords:
Physical fitness, School environment, Vulnerable populations, YouthAbstract
Introduction: Physical fitness (PF) is a key health determinant, linked to cardiometabolic risk, cognitive performance, and mental health.
Objective: This study examines how school environment characteristics, physical structures, and policies influence PF in children and adolescents from vulnerable contexts.
Method: A total of 1,359 students (707 boys), aged 5–15 years, from 12 public schools in Lagoa do Carro, Pernambuco, Brazil, were assessed. PF was measured using 20-m shuttle run, handgrip strength, sit-and-reach, standing long jump, 20m-dash and shuttle run tests. School environmental characteristics (e.g., physical structure of school and policies and practices related to physical activity and sports) were also obtained. One-way MANOVAs were performed using PF tests as dependent variables, with age, sex, and body mass index as covariates.
Results: Urban students outperformed rural peers in handgrip strength and standing long jump. Student from schools with courtyard pillars showed better performance in the 20-m dash, shuttle run, and handgrip strength. The absence of physical obstacles and the presence of larger playgrounds (>50 m²) were associated with superior handgrip and SLJ scores. Intermediate-sized playgrounds (30–49 m²) favored 20-m dash performance. Schools offering extracurricular activities, sports programs, or inter-school competitions consistently exhibited higher aerobic endurance, muscular strength, and agility among students.
Conclusion: Physical and policy-driven characteristics of school environments significantly influence PF outcomes in vulnerable youth. Findings highlight the importance of targeted investments in school infrastructure and structured physical activity programs to reduce health and fitness disparities.
References
Akseer, N., Mehta, S., Wigle, J., Chera, R., Brickman, Z. J., Al-Gash, S., Sorichetti, B., Vandermorris, A., Hipgrave, D. B., Schwalbe, N., & Bhutta, Z. A. (2020). Non-communicable diseases among adolescents: current status, determinants, interventions and policies. BMC Public Health, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09988-5
Andrade, S., Lachat, C., Ochoa-Aviles, A., Verstraeten, R., Huybregts, L., Roberfroid, D., Andrade, D., Camp, J. Van, Rojas, R., Donoso, S., Cardon, G., & Kolsteren, P. (2014). A school-based intervention improves physical fitness in Ecuadorian adolescents: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-014-0153-5
Barnett, L. M., Lai, S. K., Veldman, S. L. C., Hardy, L. L., Cliff, D. P., Morgan, P. J., Zask, A., Lubans, D. R., Shultz, S. P., Ridgers, N. D., Rush, E., Brown, H. L., & Okely, A. D. (2016). Correlates of Gross Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine, 46(11), 1663–1688. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0495-z
Burton, A. M., Cowburn, I., Thompson, F., Eisenmann, J. C., Nicholson, B., & Till, K. (2023). Associations between motor competence and physical activity, physical fitness and psychosocial characteristics in adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 53(11), 2191–2256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01886-1
Castillo, E. R., Sang, M. K., Sigei, T. K., Dingwall, H. L., Okutoyi, P., Ojiambo, R., Otárola-Castillo, E. R., Pitsiladis, Y., & Lieberman, D. E. (2016). Physical fitness differences between rural and urban children from western Kenya. American journal of human biology: the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 28(4), 514–523. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.22822
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chillón, P., Ortega, F. B., Ferrando, J. A., & Casajus, J. A. (2011). Physical fitness in rural and urban children and adolescents from Spain. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 14(5), 417–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2011.04.004
Cradock, A. L., Melly, S. J., Allen, J. G., Morris, J. S., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2007). Characteristics of school campuses and physical activity among youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.009
Drenowatz, C., Hinterkörner, F., & Greier, K. (2020). Physical fitness in upper Austrian children living in urban and rural areas: A cross-sectional analysis with more than 18,000 children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031045
García-Hermoso, A., Alonso-Martínez, A. M., Ramírez-Vélez, R., Pérez-Sousa, M. Á., Ramírez-Campillo, R., & Izquierdo, M. (2020). Association of physical education with improvement of health-related physical fitness outcomes and fundamental motor skills among youths: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(6). American Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.0223
Gomes Gonçalves, J., Luz, L., Bandeira, P. F., dos Prazeres, T., Lima, V., Maia, D., … Henrique, R. (2024). Propiedades psicométricas del cuestionario de conocimiento y comprensión de la evaluación canadiense de alfabetización física-2 en niños brasileños de baja renta (Psychometric properties of the knowledge and understanding questionnaire of the canadian assessment of physical literacy-2 in low-income brazilian children). Retos, 58, 291–298. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v58.106747
Henrique, R. S., Gomes, T. N., Tani, G., & Maia, J. A. R. (2018). Association between body mass index and individual characteristics and the school context: a multilevel study with Portuguese children. Jornal de Pediatria, 94(3), 313–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2017.06.017
Howe, C. A., Casapulla, S., Shubrook, J. H., Lopez, P., Grijalva, M., & Berryman, D. E. (2018). Regional variations in physical fitness and activity in healthy and overweight Ecuadorian adolescents. Children, 5(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/children5080104
Isensee, B., Suchert, V., Hansen, J., Weisser, B., & Hanewinkel, R. (2018). Effects of a school-based pedometer intervention in adolescents: 1-Year follow-up of a cluster-randomized controlled trial. The Journal of school health, 88(10), 717–724. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12676
Jiang, Q., Huang, X., & Cui, D. (2023). Rural–urban differences in physical fitness and overweight prevalence of children and adolescents from central south China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032390
Katzmarzyk, P. T., Barreira, T. V., Broyles, S. T., Champagne, C. M., Chaput, J.-P., Fogelholm, M., Hu, G., Johnson, W. D., Kuriyan, R., Kurpad, A., Lambert, E. V., Maher, C., Maia, J., Matsudo, V., Olds, T., Onywera, V., Sarmiento, O. L., Standage, M., Tremblay, M. S., Tudor-Locke, C., Zhao, P., & Church, T. S. (2013). The international study of childhood obesity, lifestyle and the environment (ISCOLE): Design and methods. BMC Public Health, 13, 900. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-900
Lema-Gómez, L., Arango-Paternina, C. M., Eusse-López, C., Petro, J., Petro-Petro, J., López-Sánchez, M., Watts-Fernández, W., & Perea-Velásquez, F. (2021). Family aspects, physical fitness, and physical activity associated with mental-health indicators in adolescents. BMC Public Health, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12403-2
Lo, K. Y., Wu, M. C., Tung, S. C., Hsieh, C. C., Yao, H. H., & Ho, C. C. (2017). Association of school environment and after-school physical activity with health-related physical fitness among junior high school students in Taiwan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010083
Lohman, T.G., Roche, A.F. and Martorell, R. (1988) Anthropometric standardization reference manual. Human Kinetics Books, Chicago.
Lubans, D. R., Leahy, A. A., Mavilidi, M. F., & Valkenborghs, S. R. (2022). Physical activity, fitness, and executive functions in youth: Effects, moderators, and mechanisms. Current topics in behavioral neurosciences, 53, 103–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2021_271
Meredith, M. D., & Welk, G. J. (2010). Fitnessgram & activitygram test administration manual updated (4th ed.). The Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research.
Ortega, F. B., Ruiz, J. R., Castillo, M. J., & Sjöström, M. (2008). Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence: A powerful marker of health. International Journal of Obesity 32(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803774
Pate, R. R., American Alliance for Health, P. E., & Association for Research and Professional Councils and Societies. (1985). Norms for college students: health related physical fitness test. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance.
Pereira, S., Bustamante, A., Santos, C., Hedeker, D., Tani, G., Garganta, R., Vasconcelos, O., Baxter-Jones, A., Katzmarzyk, P. T., & Maia, J. (2021). Biological and environmental influences on motor coordination in Peruvian children and adolescents. Scientific Reports, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95075-7
Pessôa dos Prazeres, T. M., dos Santos Henrique, R., Gomes de Oliveira Luz, L., Gominho Antunes Correia Junior, M., do Nascimento Sena Oliveira, M., Dantas Ribeiro, M., … Moura-dos-Santos, M. A. (2025). Semejanza entre hermanos en la aptitud física relacionada con la salud y el rendimiento entre los jóvenes brasileños . Retos, 66, 491–504. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v66.110390
Rivera-Ochoa, M., Brazo-Sayavera, J., Vizmanos-Lamotte, B., Mañas, A., Ricardo López-Taylor, J., Gonzalez-Gross, M., & Guadalupe-Grau, A. (2020). Health-related factors in Rural and Urban Mexican adolescents: The HELENA-MEX Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(23), 8959. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238959
Santana, C. C. A., Azevedo, L. B., Cattuzzo, M. T., Hill, J. O., Andrade, L. P., & Prado, W. L. (2017). Physical fitness and academic performance in youth: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 27(6), 579–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12773
Santos, C., Carolina Reyes, A., Moura-Dos-Santos, M. A., Pereira, S., Natacha Gomes, T., Tani, G., Vasconcelos, O., Chaves, R. N., Garganta, R., Barreira, T. V., Katzmarzyk, P. T., & Maia, J. (2018a). A multi-level analysis of individual- and school-level correlates of physical fitness in children. Annals of Human Biology, 45(6–8), 470–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/03014460.2018.1549684
Stoner, L., Pontzer, H., Barone Gibbs, B., Moore, J. B., Castro, N., Skidmore, P., Lark, S., Williams, M. A., Hamlin, M. J., & Faulkner, J. (2020). Fitness and fatness are both associated with cardiometabolic risk in preadolescents. Journal of Pediatrics, 217, 39-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2019.09.076
Story, M., Kaphingst, K. M., & French, S. (2006). The role of schools in obesity prevention. Source: The Future of Children, 16(1). http://www.jstor.orgURL:http://www.jstor.org/stable/3556553
Van Sluijs, E. M. F., McMinn, A. M., & Griffin, S. J. (2008). Effectiveness of interventions to promote physical activity in children and adolescents: Systematic review of controlled trials. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 42(8), 653–657. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39320.843947
Yolcu, O., Hürmeriç Altunsöz, I., İnce, M. L., & Kriellaars, D. J. (2024). Use of parkour in primary school physical education to develop motor creativity, divergent thinking, movement competence, and perceived motor competence. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2024.2400094
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Douglas Eduardo Ferreira Maia, Rostand de Souza Lira Filho, Tércio Araújo do Rego Barros, Igor Rodrigues de Souza Sobral, Ana Beatriz Felix Lourenço, Nayara Souza de Oliveira, Paulo Felipe Ribeiro Bandeira, Marcos André Moura dos Santos, Thaliane Mayara Pessôa dos Prazeres, Rafael dos Santos Henrique
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and ensure the magazine the right to be the first publication of the work as licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of authorship of the work and the initial publication in this magazine.
- Authors can establish separate additional agreements for non-exclusive distribution of the version of the work published in the journal (eg, to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Is allowed and authors are encouraged to disseminate their work electronically (eg, in institutional repositories or on their own website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as to a subpoena more Early and more of published work (See The Effect of Open Access) (in English).
This journal provides immediate open access to its content (BOAI, http://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/boaifaq.htm#openaccess) on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. The authors may download the papers from the journal website, or will be provided with the PDF version of the article via e-mail.
